From Near-Infrared Shielding to System-Level Thermal Management: Recent Advances in Infrared-Blocking Materials

從近紅外阻隔到系統級熱管理：紅外阻隔材料應用端的最新進展

09/07/2026

Abstract

Infrared-blocking materials have long been applied in architectural glazing, automotive window films, transparent coatings, and functional polymer systems. Traditionally, their performance has been evaluated primarily through near-infrared shielding or absorption efficiency and visible light transmittance.

However, recent application-oriented research shows that the evaluation of infrared-control materials is moving beyond individual optical parameters. Actual temperature reduction, energy-saving potential, spectral selectivity, long-term stability, and compatibility with industrial processing are becoming increasingly important.

At the same time, emerging technologies such as transparent radiative cooling, vehicle cabin thermal management, and dynamically adjustable smart windows are expanding the role of infrared-control materials. Rather than functioning solely as heat-shielding additives, these materials are increasingly being considered as functional components within advanced thermal-management systems.

This article reviews recent developments in the application of infrared-blocking materials and discusses the key technical requirements for translating nano infrared-control materials into practical coating, film, and polymer solutions.

Keywords: Infrared Blocking; Near-Infrared Absorption; Transparent Thermal Insulation; Automotive Glass; Architectural Glazing; Functional Films; Thermal Management; Nanomaterials

摘要

紅外阻隔材料長期應用於建築玻璃、汽車隔熱膜、透明塗層以及功能性高分子體系。傳統上，這類材料主要以近紅外阻隔或吸收效率，以及可見光透過率作為核心性能評價指標。

然而，近年的應用型研究顯示，紅外調控材料的評價方式正在逐步超越單一光學參數。實際降溫效果、節能潛力、光譜選擇性、長期穩定性以及與工業加工製程的相容性，正變得越來越重要。

與此同時，透明輻射冷卻、汽車座艙熱管理以及動態智能窗等新技術，也正在擴展紅外調控材料的應用角色。這類材料已不再僅僅被視為隔熱添加劑，而是逐步成為先進熱管理系統中的功能性組件。

本文綜述紅外阻隔材料近期的應用端發展，並進一步探討奈米紅外調控材料從材料性能走向塗層、薄膜及高分子產品實際應用所需解決的關鍵技術問題。

---

1. Infrared-Control Materials Are Moving Beyond Optical Data

For transparent thermal-management materials, one of the most fundamental technical challenges is achieving a balance between visible light transmission and solar heat control.

Traditionally, the development of infrared-blocking materials has focused on two key objectives:

High Visible Light Transmittance

and

Effective Near-Infrared Shielding or Absorption

These parameters remain essential. However, application customers are increasingly asking questions that cannot be answered by a UV-Vis-NIR spectrum alone.

For architectural applications, the key concern is whether the material can reduce indoor heat gain and cooling demand.

For automotive applications, customers increasingly focus on cabin temperature rise, passenger thermal comfort, and HVAC energy consumption.

For transparent films and coatings, haze, colour appearance, dispersion stability, weather resistance, and compatibility with the final formulation can be equally important.

As a result, the industry is gradually moving from a material-parameter-oriented evaluation system toward an application-performance-oriented evaluation system.

The question is no longer simply:

How much infrared radiation can the material absorb or shield?

It is increasingly becoming:

What measurable thermal benefit can the material create in the final application?

This change in evaluation logic is significant for both material manufacturers and downstream users.

A high infrared absorption or shielding value can demonstrate the intrinsic optical functionality of a material. However, the thermal performance of a finished product is also influenced by film thickness, material loading, dispersion quality, substrate properties, coating structure, and the thermal characteristics of the overall system.

Therefore, future infrared-control materials will increasingly need to demonstrate not only strong optical performance, but also reproducible results under actual application conditions.

1. 紅外調控材料正在超越單一光學數據

對於透明熱管理材料而言，一個最基本的技術挑戰，是如何在可見光透過與太陽熱控制之間取得平衡。

傳統紅外阻隔材料的開發主要圍繞兩個核心目標：

高可見光透過率

以及

有效的近紅外阻隔或吸收能力

這些指標仍然非常重要。然而，應用端客戶正在提出越來越多無法僅依靠一條 UV-Vis-NIR 光譜曲線回答的問題。

對建築應用而言，客戶真正關心的是材料能否降低室內太陽得熱以及空調制冷需求。

對汽車應用而言，座艙升溫速度、乘員熱舒適度以及 HVAC 空調系統能耗正受到更多關注。

而對透明薄膜與塗層而言，霧度、色彩表現、分散穩定性、耐候性能以及與最終配方體系的相容性，同樣可能成為決定材料能否實際應用的重要因素。

因此，紅外阻隔材料產業正逐步從以材料參數為中心的評價體系，轉向以實際應用性能為中心的評價體系。

核心問題已不再只是：

材料可以吸收或阻隔多少紅外輻射？

而正在逐步轉變為：

材料究竟能在最終產品中創造多少可量化的熱管理價值？

這種評價邏輯的改變，對材料製造商以及下游客戶都具有重要意義。

較高的紅外吸收或阻隔數據，可以證明材料本身所具備的光學功能。但最終產品的熱管理效果，同樣會受到膜厚、材料添加量、分散品質、基材性能、塗層結構以及整體系統熱學特性的影響。

因此，未來紅外調控材料不僅需要展現優秀的光學性能，也需要在實際應用條件下提供更加穩定、可重複的測試結果。

---

2. Architectural Glass: From Solar Heat Control to Spectral Thermal Management

Architectural glazing remains one of the most important application areas for transparent infrared-control materials.

Solar radiation transmitted through windows can contribute to indoor heat gain and increase building cooling demand. Therefore, reducing near-infrared solar energy while maintaining daylight transmission has long been a major objective in energy-efficient window design.

Recent research, however, is expanding this concept.

Instead of focusing exclusively on blocking solar heat input, advanced transparent thermal-management systems increasingly combine near-infrared control with mid-infrared thermal emission.

This creates a two-stage thermal-management strategy:

Reduce incoming solar heat

and

Enhance outward thermal radiation

Recent transparent polymer composite films have demonstrated the possibility of maintaining useful visible light transmittance while simultaneously controlling ultraviolet and near-infrared radiation and enhancing thermal emission through the atmospheric window.

For example, recent research on transparent polymer-composite films for window energy conservation has shown that selective solar control can be integrated with thermal-radiation management. Under outdoor testing conditions, such systems have demonstrated measurable temperature reduction and significant building energy-saving potential.

This development suggests an important change in the function of architectural glass.

A window is no longer viewed simply as a transparent barrier. It can potentially become a spectrally selective thermal-management interface capable of managing different portions of solar and thermal radiation.

For infrared-control material suppliers, this means that future building applications may increasingly evaluate materials as part of an integrated glazing system.

Near-infrared control remains a fundamental function, but it may increasingly be combined with UV protection, radiative cooling structures, surface functionality, and advanced glazing design.

From an industrial perspective, this also changes the discussion between material suppliers and building-material manufacturers.

Customers may increasingly ask not only about the infrared absorption spectrum of a material, but also about visible light transmittance, haze, solar heat gain, coating durability, and the thermal performance of the final glazing structure.

Therefore, the application value of infrared-control materials will increasingly depend on how effectively their optical function can be translated into actual building energy-management performance.

2. 建築玻璃：從太陽熱控制走向光譜熱管理

建築玻璃仍然是透明紅外調控材料最重要的應用領域之一。

太陽輻射透過窗戶進入建築內部後，可能增加室內熱負荷以及建築空調制冷需求。因此，在維持自然採光的同時減少近紅外太陽能輸入，長期以來一直是節能窗材料的重要開發方向。

然而，近期研究正在進一步擴展這一概念。

先進透明熱管理系統已不再僅僅關注阻止太陽熱進入，而是開始將近紅外調控與中紅外熱發射能力相結合。

由此形成兩個層面的熱管理策略：

降低太陽熱輸入

以及

增強向外熱輻射

近年的透明聚合物複合薄膜研究已顯示，在保持一定可見光透過能力的同時，可以進一步調控紫外及近紅外輻射，並透過大氣窗口波段增強熱輻射能力。

例如，近期關於透明聚合物複合節能窗膜的研究顯示，選擇性太陽光調控可以進一步與熱輻射管理相結合。在戶外測試條件下，相關系統已展現出可量化的降溫效果以及建築節能潛力。

這代表建築玻璃的功能正在發生重要變化。

窗戶已不再僅僅被視為一個透明隔離介面，而有可能逐步發展成為一種具備光譜選擇能力的透明熱管理界面，對太陽輻射及熱輻射的不同波段進行管理。

對紅外功能材料供應商而言，這意味著未來建築應用可能越來越多地將材料放在完整玻璃系統中進行評價。

近紅外調控仍然是一項基礎功能，但未來可能進一步與紫外防護、輻射冷卻結構、表面功能以及先進玻璃設計形成複合體系。

從產業角度來看，這也會改變材料供應商與建材企業之間的技術交流方式。

客戶未來可能不再僅僅詢問材料的紅外吸收光譜，而會更加關注可見光透過率、霧度、太陽得熱、塗層耐久性以及最終玻璃結構的熱管理性能。

因此，紅外調控材料的應用價值，將越來越取決於其光學功能能否真正轉化為建築能源管理中的實際效果。

---

3. Automotive Glass: Infrared Control Enters Real Vehicle Thermal Management

Automotive glazing is one of the most promising application fields for advanced infrared-control materials.

A parked vehicle exposed to strong solar radiation can experience rapid cabin temperature rise. This increases passenger discomfort and creates additional cooling demand for the vehicle HVAC system.

The issue is particularly relevant to electric vehicles, where energy used for cabin cooling can influence overall vehicle energy management.

Historically, many infrared-control materials were evaluated using spectral measurements or laboratory-scale heat-box tests.

Recent studies have taken an important step forward by conducting full-vehicle testing under actual outdoor conditions.

A 2026 study on scalable transparent radiative cooling films evaluated vehicle thermal-management performance across different locations, seasons, vehicle types, and operating conditions.

The study reported a maximum cabin temperature reduction of approximately 6.1°C and cooling energy savings of more than 20% under the investigated conditions.

The importance of this research lies not only in the reported temperature reduction.

It also demonstrates a fundamental change in application evaluation.

Automotive customers are increasingly moving from questions such as:

What is the NIR performance at a specific wavelength?

toward questions such as:

How much can cabin temperature be reduced?

How much HVAC energy can be saved?

Can the optical and thermal performance remain stable under long-term outdoor exposure?

This transition indicates that infrared-control materials are becoming part of the broader vehicle thermal-management strategy.

For material manufacturers, future product development may therefore require not only spectral data, but also standard film evaluation, glass testing, temperature-rise comparison, solar simulation, and application-side thermal validation.

Automotive applications also place strict requirements on optical quality.

A material used in transparent glazing must balance infrared-control performance with visible light transmission, haze, colour neutrality, and long-term environmental stability.

In practical formulation development, a small change in particle dispersion or material loading may significantly influence the visual appearance of the final film or glazing system.

For this reason, the development of automotive infrared-control materials is increasingly becoming a system-engineering challenge rather than a simple material-selection problem.

Material properties, dispersion technology, polymer compatibility, film processing, and final glazing structure must be evaluated together.

3. 汽車玻璃：紅外調控進入整車熱管理階段

汽車玻璃是先進紅外調控材料最具發展潛力的應用領域之一。

車輛在強烈太陽輻射下停放時，座艙溫度可能快速升高，不僅影響乘員舒適度，同時也會增加汽車 HVAC 空調系統的制冷需求。

對電動汽車而言，這一問題尤其值得關注，因為座艙制冷所消耗的能源可能進一步影響整車能源管理。

過去，許多紅外調控材料主要透過光譜測試或實驗室隔熱箱進行評價。

近期研究則向前邁出了重要一步，開始在真實戶外條件下進行整車測試。

2026 年一項關於可規模化透明輻射冷卻薄膜的研究，在不同地區、季節、車型及使用條件下評估了汽車熱管理效果。

在研究設定條件下，該技術最高可使座艙溫度降低約 6.1°C，並實現超過 20% 的制冷能源節省。

這項研究的重要性並不僅僅在於所報告的降溫數據。

它更反映了汽車應用評價方式正在發生根本性變化。

汽車客戶正在逐步從以下問題：

某個特定波長下的近紅外性能是多少？

轉向：

座艙實際可以降低多少溫度？

HVAC 空調系統可以節省多少能源？

材料在長期戶外環境下能否保持穩定的光學及熱管理性能？

這一轉變說明，紅外調控材料正逐步被納入更完整的汽車熱管理策略。

因此，對材料製造商而言，未來產品開發可能不僅需要提供光譜數據，還需要進一步建立標準薄膜測試、玻璃應用測試、溫升對比、太陽光模擬以及應用端熱性能驗證體系。

汽車應用同樣對光學品質提出非常嚴格的要求。

應用於透明玻璃體系中的材料，需要在紅外調控性能與可見光透過率、霧度、色彩中性以及長期環境穩定性之間取得平衡。

在實際配方開發中，顆粒分散狀態或材料添加量的輕微變化，都有可能明顯影響最終薄膜或玻璃產品的視覺效果。

因此，汽車紅外調控材料的開發，正在逐步從單純的材料選擇問題轉變為系統工程問題。

材料性能、分散技術、高分子相容性、薄膜加工以及最終玻璃結構，都需要進行綜合評估。

---

4. Industrialization: Dispersion and Processability Are Becoming Critical

A material with excellent optical performance in the laboratory is not automatically an industrial product.

For nano infrared-control materials, one of the most important application challenges is dispersion.

Nano-scale particles generally possess a relatively high specific surface area. While this can contribute to functional performance, it may also increase the tendency of particles to agglomerate.

In transparent systems, poor dispersion can result in:

• increased haze;
• uneven optical performance;
• coating defects;
• reduced storage stability;
• and inconsistent final product quality.

Therefore, the final performance of a nano infrared material depends not only on the intrinsic properties of the particle.

It also depends on how effectively the material is incorporated into the customer’s coating, film, or polymer system.

Another important consideration is product form.

A coating producer may prefer a ready-to-use dispersion.

A PET film producer may find a functional masterbatch more compatible with existing extrusion processes.

A formulation company with strong in-house dispersion capability may prefer nano powder because it provides greater formulation flexibility.

This leads to an important industrial principle:

One functional material chemistry may require multiple application-ready delivery forms.

As infrared-control applications expand, material suppliers may need to move beyond supplying a single powder product and instead develop different material-entry routes according to customer processing conditions.

The future competitiveness of infrared-control materials will therefore increasingly depend on the ability to connect:

Nano Material

with

Dispersion Technology

and

Industrial Processing

and ultimately

Application Validation

Another issue that deserves attention is the distinction between infrared absorption and final thermal performance.

A material with high infrared absorption can effectively interact with near-infrared radiation. However, absorbed radiation may be converted into heat within the material or the surrounding structure.

The actual thermal-management result therefore depends on multiple factors, including coating position, substrate thermal conductivity, convection conditions, glazing structure, and thermal emissivity.

For this reason, material-level data and application-level data should be evaluated separately.

Material-level evaluation may include:

• UV-Vis-NIR spectral performance;
• particle size;
• specific surface area;
• dispersion stability.

Application-level evaluation may include:

• visible light transmittance;
• haze;
• colour appearance;
• temperature-rise comparison;
• heat-shielding performance;
• accelerated UV aging;
• and long-term thermal stability.

This two-level evaluation framework can provide a more realistic understanding of how nano infrared-control materials perform in actual industrial systems.

4. 產業化：分散與加工適配性正成為關鍵

一種在實驗室中具有優秀光學性能的材料，並不會自動成為真正的工業產品。

對奈米紅外調控材料而言，分散是最重要的應用技術挑戰之一。

奈米級顆粒通常具有較高的比表面積。這一特性可能有助於材料發揮功能性能，但同時也可能增加顆粒發生團聚的傾向。

在透明材料體系中，分散不佳可能導致：

• 霧度上升；
• 光學性能不均勻；
• 塗膜缺陷；
• 儲存穩定性下降；
• 最終產品品質不一致。

因此，奈米紅外材料的最終性能不僅取決於顆粒本身的固有特性。

同樣取決於材料能否有效導入客戶的塗層、薄膜或高分子加工體系。

另一個重要問題是產品形態。

塗料企業可能更傾向於直接使用預分散液。

PET 薄膜企業可能認為功能母粒更加符合現有擠出加工流程。

而具備較強自主分散與配方能力的企業，則可能更傾向於選擇奈米粉體，以獲得更高的配方自由度。

由此形成一個重要的產業化原則：

同一種功能材料化學體系，可能需要多種貼近實際加工的產品交付形式。

隨著紅外調控材料應用領域不斷擴大，材料供應商可能需要超越單一粉體產品模式，根據客戶不同的加工條件開發多種材料導入方式。

因此，未來紅外調控材料的競爭力，將越來越取決於企業能否有效連接：

奈米材料

與

分散技術

再到

工業加工

最終實現

應用驗證

另一個值得關注的問題，是紅外吸收性能與最終熱管理效果之間的區別。

具有較高紅外吸收能力的材料，可以有效與近紅外輻射發生作用。然而，被吸收的輻射能量可能進一步轉化為材料或周圍結構中的熱量。

因此，最終的熱管理效果還會受到塗層位置、基材導熱性能、對流條件、玻璃結構以及熱發射性能等多種因素影響。

基於這一原因，材料級數據與應用級數據應當分別進行評估。

材料級測試可以包括：

• UV-Vis-NIR 光譜性能；
• 顆粒粒徑；
• 比表面積；
• 分散穩定性。

應用級測試可以包括：

• 可見光透過率；
• 霧度；
• 色彩外觀；
• 溫升對比；
• 隔熱性能；
• 加速紫外老化；
• 長期熱穩定性。

這種雙層評價方式，可以更加真實地反映奈米紅外調控材料在工業應用體系中的實際表現。

---

AntibariMax®: From Nano Infrared Materials to Application-Ready Solutions

Against this evolving application landscape, Langyi Functional Materials has developed AntibariMax®, a high-efficiency nano infrared-control material platform designed for coatings, films, and polymer thermal-management applications.

According to current product information, AntibariMax® nano infrared-barrier powder features a fine initial particle size of approximately 30–50 nm and a specific surface area of approximately 30–60 m²/g.

To address different customer processing requirements, AntibariMax® is available in multiple application-oriented forms.

AntibariMax® LNT

Nano Infrared-Barrier Powder

AntibariMax® LNT is designed for customers with in-house dispersion and formulation capabilities.

The nano powder form provides greater flexibility for the development of coatings, films, and functional polymer systems.

For customers with established formulation platforms, the powder format allows the infrared-control material to be adapted according to different resin systems, processing routes, and optical-performance targets.

AntibariMax® JLNT

Infrared-Barrier Dispersion

AntibariMax® JLNT is developed for coating and liquid-processing applications.

Through nano-powder surface modification and specialized dispersion technology, AntibariMax® can be incorporated into different solvent-based dispersion systems.

According to current product information, dispersion products can be developed with solid contents in the range of approximately 5–50%, depending on the application system.

The dispersion form is designed to reduce the technical difficulty associated with direct nano-powder handling.

For coating manufacturers and formulators, pre-dispersed infrared-control materials may help simplify the formulation process and improve application consistency.

AntibariMax® MLNT

Infrared-Barrier Functional Masterbatch

AntibariMax® MLNT is developed for polymer processing applications.

AntibariMax® can be incorporated into polymer systems including PET, PC, and PMMA, providing a more convenient material-entry route for film, sheet, and transparent polymer-product manufacturers.

For extrusion and polymer-processing customers, the masterbatch format can be more compatible with existing industrial production processes.

According to existing AntibariMax® product data, under specific test conditions, the material can achieve an infrared absorption rate of up to 95%, while maintaining visible light transmittance above 75%.

Actual optical and thermal performance may vary depending on the substrate, material loading, film thickness, dispersion quality, and final product structure.

From an application perspective, the value of AntibariMax® is not limited to infrared absorption performance alone.

The combination of nano powder, dispersion, and functional masterbatch provides different integration routes for customers with different processing capabilities.

This multi-form product strategy reflects an important trend in the functional-material industry: advanced material performance must be combined with practical process compatibility.

For this reason, AntibariMax® is better positioned not simply as an infrared-blocking powder, but as:

A nano NIR-control material platform designed for coatings, films, and polymer thermal-management applications.

Potential application directions include:

• transparent thermal-insulation films for architectural glazing;
• automotive glass thermal-management films;
• infrared-control coatings;
• functional polymer films;
• and transparent plastic systems.

As transparent thermal-management technologies continue to evolve, nano near-infrared control materials may increasingly be integrated with UV protection, radiative-cooling structures, and other advanced optical-management technologies.

The key industrial challenge is to make these functions easier to incorporate into real customer products.

This is where application-oriented material design, dispersion technology, and multiple delivery forms become increasingly important.

---

Outlook: From Infrared Blocking to Real Thermal-Management Value

The infrared-control material industry is entering a new stage of development.

The first question was:

Can the material absorb or shield infrared radiation?

The second question was:

Can it maintain useful transparency?

Today, the industry is increasingly asking a third and more application-oriented question:

Can the material create measurable thermal and energy benefits in real products?

Recent developments in architectural glazing, vehicle thermal management, transparent cooling films, and smart windows clearly reflect this transition.

Future infrared-control materials will increasingly need to combine:

Effective NIR performance

Optical balance

Reliable dispersion

Industrial process compatibility

Long-term stability

and

Application-side validation

For functional material manufacturers, the competitive advantage may no longer come from a single optical value.

The real challenge is to build a technical pathway from nano materials to application-ready systems.

At Langyi Functional Materials, AntibariMax® is being developed around this application-oriented approach.

Our objective is not simply to provide an infrared-control material.

It is:

To make advanced infrared-control functionality easier to integrate into real coatings, films, and polymer products.

Developing a Transparent Thermal-Management Product?

Are you developing transparent thermal-insulation films, automotive or architectural glass solutions, infrared-control coatings, or functional polymer products?

Talk to Langyi Functional Materials about AntibariMax® powder, dispersion, and masterbatch solutions.

Our team can support discussions around material form, processing route, and application requirements.

Contact Our Materials Team

展望：從紅外阻隔走向真實熱管理價值

紅外調控材料產業正在進入一個新的發展階段。

第一個問題是：

材料能否吸收或阻隔紅外輻射？

第二個問題是：

材料能否同時維持有效的透明度？

而現在，產業正在越來越多地提出第三個、也是更加貼近應用的問題：

材料能否在真實產品中創造可量化的降溫與節能價值？

近期建築玻璃、汽車熱管理、透明冷卻薄膜以及智能窗技術的發展，已經明顯反映了這一轉變。

未來紅外調控材料需要越來越多地同時具備：

有效的近紅外功能性能

合理的光學平衡

可靠的分散性能

工業加工相容性

長期穩定性

以及

應用端驗證能力

對功能材料企業而言，未來的競爭優勢可能不再來自某一個單一光學數值。

真正的挑戰，是能否建立從奈米材料走向實際應用體系的完整技術路徑。

朗億功能材料正在以這一應用導向理念持續開發 AntibariMax®。

我們的目標不僅是提供一種紅外調控材料。

更重要的是：

讓先進的紅外調控功能，更容易真正導入客戶的塗層、薄膜以及高分子產品。

正在開發透明熱管理產品？

您是否正在開發透明隔熱薄膜、汽車或建築玻璃解決方案、紅外調控塗層，或功能性高分子產品？

歡迎與朗億功能材料團隊交流 AntibariMax® 粉體、分散液及功能母粒解決方案。

我們可根據材料形態、加工路徑以及實際應用需求，與客戶進一步進行技術交流。

聯絡我們的材料技術團隊

---

References

1. Liu, X.; Zhang, H.; Pan, Y.; Ma, J.; Liu, C.; Shen, C. A Transparent Polymer-Composite Film for Window Energy Conservation. Nano-Micro Letters, 2025, 17, 151. DOI: 10.1007/s40820-025-01668-6.
2. Lee, M. J.; Wang, X.; Kim, T. H.; et al. Towards Decarbonization in Transportation: Scalable Transparent Radiative Cooling for Enhanced Vehicle Energy Efficiency. Energy & Environmental Science, 2026, 19, 1517–1529. DOI: 10.1039/D5EE06609C.
3. Wu, X.; Bao, B.; Bai, Z.; et al. Heteroaromatic π-Stacking Engineered Near-Infrared Absorption for Highly Stable Near-Zero Transmittance Electrochromic Window. Nature Communications, 2025, 16, 9964. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-64955-1.
4. Mao, J.; Tan, X.; Hu, W.; Shi, C.; Zhou, F.; Tsamis, A. Simple Preparation of PVDF Composite Flexible Film with Transparent, Self-Cleaning and Radiative Cooling Properties. RSC Advances, 2024, 14, 36656–36666. DOI: 10.1039/D4RA06819J.